Which Phase Of Matter Can Change Shape But Not Volume

Distinct forms that different phases of thing accept on

Platinum exist as solid at normal room temperature

In physics, a state of matter is i of the singled-out forms in which matter tin be. Four states of affair are appreciable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many intermediate states are known to exist, such every bit liquid crystal, and some states only exist under extreme weather, such every bit Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter, and quark–gluon plasma, which only occur, respectively, in situations of extreme cold, farthermost density, and extremely high free energy. For a consummate listing of all exotic states of matter, come across the list of states of matter.

Historically, the distinction is fabricated based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the solid state maintains a stock-still volume and shape, with component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid land maintains a fixed volume, merely has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are nevertheless close together simply move freely. Thing in the gaseous land has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor fixed in place. Thing in the plasma land has variable volume and shape, and contains neutral atoms as well every bit a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can movement around freely.

The term "phase" is sometimes used equally a synonym for state of matter, but it is possible for a unmarried compound to course different phases that are in the same country of matter. For example, ice is the solid country of h2o, merely there are multiple phases of water ice with different crystal structures, which are formed at dissimilar pressures and temperatures.

Four fundamental states

Solid

In a solid, elective particles (ions, atoms, or molecules) are closely packed together. The forces betwixt particles are so stiff that the particles cannot motility freely but can only vibrate. Every bit a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite book. Solids can merely modify their shape past an exterior force, as when broken or cutting.

In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern. In that location are various different crystal structures, and the aforementioned substance tin have more than than 1 construction (or solid phase). For example, iron has a body-centred cubic structure at temperatures beneath 912 °C (1,674 °F), and a confront-centred cubic construction between 912 and 1,394 °C (2,541 °F). Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, or fifteen solid phases, which exist at various temperatures and pressures.^[ane]

Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range order are not thermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below every bit nonclassical states of matter.

Solids tin can be transformed into liquids past melting, and liquids tin exist transformed into solids past freezing. Solids can also alter directly into gases through the procedure of sublimation, and gases can likewise change direct into solids through deposition.

Liquid

Construction of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no long-range order is present.

A liquid is a most incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container simply retains a (about) constant volume contained of pressure. The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated in a higher place its melting betoken, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple betoken of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules have plenty energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite just is adamant past its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the corresponding solid, the best known exception beingness water, H₂O. The highest temperature at which a given liquid can be is its disquisitional temperature.^[2]

Gas

The spaces between gas molecules are very big. Gas molecules have very weak or no bonds at all. The molecules in "gas" can motion freely and fast.

Principal article: Gas

A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas arrange to the shape of its container only it will as well expand to make full the container.

In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic free energy so that the outcome of intermolecular forces is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, only occupies the entire container in which it is bars. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling bespeak, or else past reducing the pressure at constant temperature.

At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and tin be liquefied past compression alone without cooling. A vapor can be in equilibrium with a liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor force per unit area of the liquid (or solid).

A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above the critical temperature and critical pressure level respectively. In this state, the distinction between liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of a gas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases, which leads to useful applications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract caffeine in the industry of decaffeinated java.^[3]

Plasma

In a plasma, electrons are ripped away from their nuclei, forming an electron "sea". This gives information technology the ability to conduct electricity.

Like a gas, plasma does non have definite shape or book. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electrical currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, like to the way such charges exist in conductive metal, where this electron "sea" allows thing in the plasma state to conduct electricity.

A gas is commonly converted to a plasma in i of 2 ways, either from a huge voltage difference between two points, or by exposing it to extremely high temperatures. Heating thing to high temperatures causes electrons to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence of free electrons. This creates a so-chosen partially ionised plasma. At very high temperatures, such every bit those present in stars, it is assumed that substantially all electrons are "free", and that a very loftier-energy plasma is substantially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. This forms the so-called fully ionised plasma.

The plasma land is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, information technology is quite commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma televisions. The Sunday'south corona, some types of flame, and stars are all examples of illuminated affair in the plasma land.

Phase transitions

This diagram illustrates transitions between the four key states of thing.

A state of matter is besides characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and tin can exist recognized past an precipitous change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any ready of states distinguished from whatever other gear up of states by a phase transition. H2o can exist said to have several distinct solid states.^[4] The advent of superconductivity is associated with a phase transition, so in that location are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states are demarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change of state occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phases have been exploited past the introduction of liquid crystal engineering science.^{[5] [6]}

The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these weather condition modify to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature. Near absolute zip, a substance exists as a solid. Equally oestrus is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point, boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons are and then energized that they leave their parent atoms.

Forms of matter that are not equanimous of molecules and are organized past dissimilar forces can also be considered different states of thing. Superfluids (like Fermionic condensate) and the quark–gluon plasma are examples.

In a chemic equation, the state of matter of the chemicals may be shown as (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, and (thousand) for gas. An aqueous solution is denoted (aq). Matter in the plasma state is seldom used (if at all) in chemical equations, and then there is no standard symbol to denote information technology. In the rare equations that plasma is used information technology is symbolized as (p).

Non-classical states

Glass

Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (left) and ordered crystalline lattice (right) of identical chemical composition.

Drinking glass is a non-crystalline or amorphous solid textile that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can exist made of quite different classes of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made of silicate plus additives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. Thermodynamically, a drinking glass is in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline analogue. The conversion charge per unit, however, is practically naught.

Crystals with some degree of disorder

A plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degree of freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered country.

Similarly, in a spin drinking glass magnetic disorder is frozen.

Liquid crystal states

Liquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered solids. By and large, they are able to menstruum like a liquid, simply exhibiting long-range gild. For example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such as para-azoxyanisole, which is nematic in the temperature range 118–136 °C (244–277 °F).^[vii] In this state the molecules menstruation as in a liquid, simply they all signal in the aforementioned direction (within each domain) and cannot rotate freely. Like a crystalline solid, but unlike a liquid, liquid crystals react to polarized low-cal.

Other types of liquid crystals are described in the principal article on these states. Several types have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays.

Magnetically ordered

Transition metallic atoms oftentimes have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electrons that remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic moments on dissimilar atoms are ordered and can grade a ferromagnet, an antiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.

In a ferromagnet—for instance, solid atomic number 26—the magnetic moment on each cantlet is aligned in the aforementioned direction (within a magnetic domain). If the domains are also aligned, the solid is a permanent magnet, which is magnetic even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated to the Curie point, which for iron is 768 °C (1,414 °F).

An antiferromagnet has ii networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(2) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction.

In a ferrimagnet, the 2 networks of magnetic moments are opposite only unequal, so that counterfoil is incomplete and at that place is a non-zero internet magnetization. An example is magnetite (Fe₃O_iv), which contains Fe²⁺ and Fe^three+ ions with unlike magnetic moments.

A breakthrough spin liquid (QSL) is a disordered state in a organization of interacting quantum spins which preserves its disorder to very low temperatures, different other disordered states. It is non a liquid in physical sense, but a solid whose magnetic guild is inherently disordered. The name "liquid" is due to an analogy with the molecular disorder in a conventional liquid. A QSL is neither a ferromagnet, where magnetic domains are parallel, nor an antiferromagnet, where the magnetic domains are antiparallel; instead, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented. This tin be realized due east.g. past geometrically frustrated magnetic moments that cannot point uniformly parallel or antiparallel. When cooling down and settling to a country, the domain must "choose" an orientation, but if the possible states are similar in energy, one volition be called randomly. Consequently, despite strong brusk-range order, in that location is no long-range magnetic order.

Microphase-separated

SBS block copolymer in TEM

Copolymers tin can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodic nanostructures, equally shown in the instance of the styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer shown at right. Microphase separation can be understood past illustration to the phase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the blocks, cake copolymers undergo a like phase separation. Nonetheless, because the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically as water and oil can, and then instead the blocks grade nanometre-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of the polymer, many morphologies tin can be obtained, each its own phase of affair.

Ionic liquids also brandish microphase separation. The anion and cation are non necessarily uniform and would demix otherwise, but electrical accuse attraction prevents them from separating. Their anions and cations appear to diffuse within compartmentalized layers or micelles instead of freely as in a uniform liquid.^[eight]

Low-temperature states

Superconductor

Superconductors are materials which have nix electrical resistivity, and therefore perfect conductivity. This is a distinct physical state which exists at low temperature, and the resistivity increases discontinuously to a finite value at a sharply-defined transition temperature for each superconductor.^[nine]

A superconductor also excludes all magnetic fields from its interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect or perfect diamagnetism.^[9] Superconducting magnets are used as electromagnets in magnetic resonance imaging machines.

The phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered in 1911, and for 75 years was only known in some metals and metallic alloys at temperatures below thirty M. In 1986 then-called high-temperature superconductivity was discovered in certain ceramic oxides, and has now been observed in temperatures as high as 164 One thousand.^[ten]

Superfluid

Liquid helium in a superfluid stage creeps up on the walls of the cup in a Rollin moving-picture show, somewhen dripping out from the cup.

Close to absolute cypher, some liquids grade a second liquid state described as superfluid considering it has cipher viscosity (or space fluidity; i.eastward., flowing without friction). This was discovered in 1937 for helium, which forms a superfluid below the lambda temperature of 2.17 K (−270.98 °C; −455.76 °F). In this land it will attempt to "climb" out of its container.^[11] It also has space thermal electrical conductivity and then that no temperature gradient tin can form in a superfluid. Placing a superfluid in a spinning container will effect in quantized vortices.

These properties are explained by the theory that the mutual isotope helium-four forms a Bose–Einstein condensate (come across next section) in the superfluid land. More recently, Fermionic condensate superfluids take been formed at even lower temperatures by the rare isotope helium-iii and past lithium-6.^[12]

Bose–Einstein condensate

Velocity in a gas of rubidium as it is cooled: the starting material is on the left, and Bose–Einstein condensate is on the right.

In 1924, Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose predicted the "Bose–Einstein condensate" (BEC), sometimes referred to equally the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matter stops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single breakthrough state that can exist described with a single, compatible wavefunction.

In the gas phase, the Bose–Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoretical prediction for many years. In 1995, the research groups of Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, of JILA at the University of Colorado at Bedrock, produced the first such condensate experimentally. A Bose–Einstein condensate is "colder" than a solid. Information technology may occur when atoms accept very similar (or the same) quantum levels, at temperatures very close to absolute nothing, −273.fifteen °C (−459.67 °F).

Fermionic condensate

A fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose–Einstein condensate simply composed of fermions. The Pauli exclusion principle prevents fermions from inbound the same quantum state, but a pair of fermions tin can deport as a boson, and multiple such pairs can then enter the same quantum state without restriction.

Rydberg molecule

One of the metastable states of strongly non-ideal plasma are condensates of excited atoms, called Rydberg thing. These atoms can also plough into ions and electrons if they reach a sure temperature. In April 2009, Nature reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and a ground state atom,^[thirteen] confirming that such a state of matter could exist.^[fourteen] The experiment was performed using ultracold rubidium atoms.

Quantum Hall state

A quantum Hall state gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction perpendicular to the current menstruum. A quantum spin Hall land is a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that misemploy less energy and generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.

Photonic affair

Photonic thing is a phenomenon where photons interacting with a gas develop credible mass, and tin interact with each other, even forming photonic "molecules". The source of mass is the gas, which is massive. This is in contrast to photons moving in empty space, which take no rest mass, and cannot interact.

Dropleton

A "quantum fog" of electrons and holes that flow around each other and even ripple like a liquid, rather than existing as discrete pairs.^[xv]

High-energy states

Degenerate matter

Under extremely loftier force per unit area, as in the cores of dead stars, ordinary thing undergoes a transition to a serial of exotic states of thing collectively known as degenerate matter, which are supported mainly by quantum mechanical effects. In physics, "degenerate" refers to two states that take the same free energy and are thus interchangeable. Degenerate thing is supported by the Pauli exclusion principle, which prevents ii fermionic particles from occupying the same quantum state. Unlike regular plasma, degenerate plasma expands little when heated, because at that place are just no momentum states left. Consequently, degenerate stars collapse into very high densities. More massive degenerate stars are smaller, because the gravitational force increases, just pressure does not increase proportionally.

Electron-degenerate affair is plant within white dwarf stars. Electrons remain bound to atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matter is establish in neutron stars. Vast gravitational force per unit area compresses atoms so strongly that the electrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in a superdense conglomeration of neutrons. Unremarkably free neutrons exterior an atomic nucleus volition disuse with a one-half life of approximately 10 minutes, just in a neutron star, the disuse is overtaken by inverse disuse. Common cold degenerate matter is also nowadays in planets such as Jupiter and in the even more massive brownish dwarfs, which are expected to have a cadre with metallic hydrogen. Considering of the degeneracy, more massive brown dwarfs are not significantly larger. In metals, the electrons tin be modeled equally a degenerate gas moving in a lattice of non-degenerate positive ions.

Quark matter

In regular common cold matter, quarks, fundamental particles of nuclear matter, are confined past the strong force into hadrons that consist of two–iv quarks, such as protons and neutrons. Quark affair or quantum chromodynamical (QCD) thing is a group of phases where the stiff force is overcome and quarks are deconfined and free to move. Quark matter phases occur at extremely high densities or temperatures, and in that location are no known ways to produce them in equilibrium in the laboratory; in ordinary weather, any quark matter formed immediately undergoes radioactivity.

Strange matter is a type of quark matter that is suspected to be inside some neutron stars shut to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (approximately 2–3 solar masses), although at that place is no direct evidence of its being. In strange matter, part of the free energy available manifests as strange quarks, a heavier analogue of the common down quark. It may be stable at lower energy states once formed, although this is non known.

Quark–gluon plasma is a very high-temperature phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently, rather than being perpetually bound into particles, in a bounding main of gluons, subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together. This is analogous to the liberation of electrons from atoms in a plasma. This land is briefly attainable in extremely high-energy heavy ion collisions in particle accelerators, and allows scientists to observe the properties of private quarks, and not just theorize. Quark–gluon plasma was discovered at CERN in 2000. Unlike plasma, which flows like a gas, interactions inside QGP are potent and it flows like a liquid.

At high densities but relatively low temperatures, quarks are theorized to form a quark liquid whose nature is before long unknown. It forms a singled-out color-flavour locked (CFL) phase at even college densities. This phase is superconductive for color accuse. These phases may occur in neutron stars merely they are presently theoretical.

Color-glass condensate

Color-drinking glass condensate is a type of thing theorized to be in diminutive nuclei traveling near the speed of light. According to Einstein's theory of relativity, a loftier-energy nucleus appears length contracted, or compressed, along its direction of motion. Every bit a result, the gluons inside the nucleus appear to a stationary observer every bit a "gluonic wall" traveling most the speed of lite. At very high energies, the density of the gluons in this wall is seen to increase greatly. Dissimilar the quark–gluon plasma produced in the standoff of such walls, the colour-glass condensate describes the walls themselves, and is an intrinsic property of the particles that can just be observed under high-free energy conditions such as those at RHIC and possibly at the Large Hadron Collider equally well.

Very high energy states

Various theories predict new states of matter at very high energies. An unknown country has created the baryon asymmetry in the universe, only trivial is known about it. In string theory, a Hagedorn temperature is predicted for superstrings at nigh 10^xxx K, where superstrings are copiously produced. At Planck temperature (10³² K), gravity becomes a significant force between individual particles. No current theory tin describe these states and they cannot exist produced with whatsoever foreseeable experiment. However, these states are of import in cosmology because the universe may accept passed through these states in the Big Bang.

The gravitational singularity predicted by full general relativity to exist at the centre of a blackness pigsty is not a phase of matter; information technology is not a textile object at all (although the mass-energy of thing contributed to its creation) simply rather a holding of spacetime. Because spacetime breaks down there, the singularity should not be thought of as a localized structure, but as a global, topological feature of spacetime.^[16] It has been argued that simple particles are fundamentally not cloth, either, only are localized properties of spacetime.^[17] In quantum gravity, singularities may in fact mark transitions to a new stage of affair.^[xviii]

Other proposed states

Supersolid

A supersolid is a spatially ordered textile (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to movement without friction just retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, information technology exhibits so many characteristic properties unlike from other solids that many argue it is some other state of matter.^[19]

String-net liquid

In a string-net liquid, atoms accept apparently unstable arrangement, similar a liquid, but are still consequent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid country, the atoms of matter align themselves in a filigree design, so that the spin of whatever electron is the reverse of the spin of all electrons touching it. Only in a cord-net liquid, atoms are arranged in some blueprint that requires some electrons to take neighbors with the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, also as supporting some unusual proposals about the cardinal conditions of the universe itself.

Superglass

A superglass is a phase of matter characterized, at the same time, by superfluidity and a frozen amorphous structure.

Arbitrary definition

Although multiple attempts take been made to create a unified business relationship, ultimately the definitions of what states of matter exist and the bespeak at which states change are capricious.^{[20] [21] [22]} Some authors have suggested that states of thing are ameliorate thought of equally a spectrum between a solid and plasma instead of being rigidly defined.^[23]

See too

• Subconscious states of matter
• Classical element
• Condensed affair physics
• Cooling curve
• Phase (matter)
• Supercooling
• Superheating

Ice cubes melting showing a change in land

Phase transitions of thing (

• v
• t
• e

)

To From	Solid	Liquid	Gas	Plasma
Solid		Melting	Sublimation
Liquid	Freezing		Vaporization
Gas	Deposition	Condensation		Ionization
Plasma			Recombination

Notes and references

1. ^ Grand.A. Wahab (2005). Solid State Physics: Construction and Backdrop of Materials. Alpha Science. pp. one–iii. ISBN978-1-84265-218-three.
2. ^ F. White (2003). Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. p. 4. ISBN978-0-07-240217-ix.
3. ^ K. Turrell (1997). Gas Dynamics: Theory and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–5. ISBN978-0-471-97573-1.
4. ^ M. Chaplin (20 August 2009). "H2o phase Diagram". Water Structure and Science. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
5. ^ D.L. Goodstein (1985). States of Affair. Dover Phoenix. ISBN978-0-486-49506-4.
6. ^ A.P. Sutton (1993). Electronic Structure of Materials. Oxford Science Publications. pp. ten–12. ISBN978-0-19-851754-ii.
7. ^ Shao, Y.; Zerda, T.Due west. (1998). "Phase Transitions of Liquid Crystal PAA in Confined Geometries". Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 102 (18): 3387–3394. doi:10.1021/jp9734437.
8. ^ Álvarez, V.H.; Dosil, N.; Gonzalez-Cabaleiro, R.; Mattedi, South.; Martin-Pastor, Grand.; Iglesias, M. & Navaza, J.M.: Brønsted Ionic Liquids for Sustainable Processes: Synthesis and Physical Properties. Journal of Chemic & Engineering Data 55 (2010), Nr. two, South. 625–632. doi:10.1021/je900550v 10.1021/je900550v
9. ^ ^{a b} White, Mary Anne (1999). Backdrop of Materials. Oxford Academy Press. pp. 254–8. ISBN0-19-511331-4.
10. ^ M. Tinkham (2004). Introduction to Superconductivity. Courier Dover. pp. 17–23. ISBN0486435032.
11. ^ J.R. Minkel (20 Feb 2009). "Foreign merely True: Superfluid Helium Tin can Climb Walls". Scientific American. Archived from the original on xix March 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
12. ^ L. Valigra (22 June 2005). "MIT physicists create new form of matter". MIT News. Archived from the original on 11 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
13. ^ V. Bendkowsky; et al. (2009). "Observation of Ultralong-Range Rydberg Molecules". Nature. 458 (7241): 1005–1008. Bibcode:2009Natur.458.1005B. doi:x.1038/nature07945. PMID 19396141. S2CID 4332553.
14. ^ V. Gill (23 April 2009). "World Kickoff for Strange Molecule". BBC News. Archived from the original on ane July 2009. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
15. ^ Luntz, Stephen (iii January 2014). "New State of Matter Discovered". IFLScience. Archived from the original on xvi April 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
16. ^ Lam, Vincent (2008). "Affiliate half-dozen: Structural Aspects of Space-Time Singularities". In Dieks, Dennis (ed.). The Ontology of Spacetime Two. Elsevier. pp. 111–131. ISBN978-0-444-53275-six.
17. ^ David Chalmers; David Manley; Ryan Wasserman (2009). Metametaphysics: New Essays on the Foundations of Ontology. Oxford Academy Printing. pp. 378–. ISBN978-0-xix-954604-six. Archived from the original on 17 September 2014.
18. ^ Oriti, Daniele (2011). "On the depth of breakthrough infinite". arXiv:1107.4534 [physics.pop-ph].
19. ^ G. Murthy; et al. (1997). "Superfluids and Supersolids on Frustrated Two-Dimensional Lattices". Physical Review B. 55 (v): 3104. arXiv:cond-mat/9607217. Bibcode:1997PhRvB..55.3104M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.55.3104. S2CID 119498444.
20. ^ F. Duncan Yard. Haldane; et al. (1991). "Partial statistics in Arbitrary Dimensions: A Generalization of the Pauli Principle" (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 67 (8): 937–940. Bibcode:1991PhRvL..67..937H. doi:ten.1103/PhysRevLett.67.937. PMID 10045028.
21. ^ Yard. Sánchez-Barquilla, R. Eastward. F. Silva, and J. Feist1 et al. (2020). "Cumulant expansion for the treatment of low-cal-matter interactions in arbitrary material structures". The Journal of Chemical Physics. two (3): ii. arXiv:1911.07037. Bibcode:2020JChPh.152c4108S. doi:10.1063/1.5138937. PMID 31968946. S2CID 208138546. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
22. ^ Castleman, A. W.; Keesee, R. G. (1988). "Gas-Phase Clusters: Spanning u.s.a. of Thing". Science. 241 (4861): 36–42. Bibcode:1988Sci...241...36C. doi:10.1126/science.241.4861.36. ISSN 0036-8075. JSTOR 1701318. PMID 17815538. S2CID 206573584.
23. ^ "(PDF) Moving ridge Spectra in Solid and Liquid Complex (Dusty) Plasmas" (PDF). Researchgate.net. Retrieved 8 March 2022.

External links

• 2005-06-22, MIT News: MIT physicists create new class of matter Citat: "... They take go the first to create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity."
• 2003-10-ten, Scientific discipline Daily: Metallic Stage For Bosons Implies New Country Of Affair
• 2004-01-xv, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Stage Of Matter Citat: "...We obviously have observed, for the kickoff fourth dimension, a solid fabric with the characteristics of a superfluid...simply because all its particles are in the identical quantum land, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..."
• 2004-01-29, ScienceDaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Class Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate
• Curt videos demonstrating of States of Matter, solids, liquids and gases past Prof. J M Murrell, University of Sussex

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter

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